bis 14 n. Chr. August 14 n. Chr. [155] Although Primus was found guilty, some jurors voted to acquit, meaning that not everybody believed Augustus's testimony, an insult to the 'August One'. [109], Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was commissioned by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 20 B.C. In the year 29 BC, Augustus gave 400 sesterces (equal to 1/10 of a Roman pound of gold) each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon. See also Roman Empire and ancient Rome. The conspirators were tried in absentia with Tiberius acting as prosecutor; the jury found them guilty, but it was not a unanimous verdict. [119] Historian Werner Eck states: The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. [1][2] The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana. [142], Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as an obvious system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility among the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy. [176] If he were to die from natural causes or fall victim to assassination, Rome could be subjected to another round of civil war. The men were initially his bodyguards, but they soon grew in size and importance. [88] A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and the Peloponnese, and ensured him a future position as consul for 35 BC. Livia had long been the target of similar rumors of poisoning on the behalf of her son, most or all of which are unlikely to have been true. Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, while Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. [152] Later, Primus testified that the orders came from the recently deceased Marcellus. [29] Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law,[nb 2] and so had adopted Octavius, his grand-nephew, making him his primary heir. He was immensely hardworking and tried as hard as any democratic parliamentarian to treat his senatorial colleagues with respect and sensitivity. [nb 1] His status as the founder of the Roman Principate (the first phase of the Roman Empire) has consolidated an enduring legacy as one of the most effective and controversial leaders in human history. [161], Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself, in addition to being granted proconsular imperium maius and tribunician authority for life. Bowersock (1990), p. 380. [210][211] This element features in many modern works of historical fiction pertaining to Augustus's life, but some historians view it as likely to have been a salacious fabrication made by those who had favoured Postumus as heir, or other of Tiberius's political enemies. Rising to prominence after the death of Julius Caesar, Octavian became consul and then a part of the Second Triumvirate. About 40 BCE Antony began a consequential love affair with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. However, though some of his contemporaries did,[35] there is no evidence that Octavius ever himself officially used the name Octavianus, as it would have made his modest origins too obvious. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). [181] The rebellious tribes of Asturias and Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, and the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. He rudely demanded to know why Augustus had turned up to a trial to which he had not been called; Augustus replied that he came in the public interest. Octavian lacked the resources to confront Pompeius alone, however, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC. [45][46][47], Arriving in Rome on 6 May 44 BC, Octavian found consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins. [117][118] Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as consuls by the Senate.